Different Styles of Eye Liner

Eyeliner is the most important part of the makeup and without it makeup is not successful. Eyeliner enhance the beauty of your eyes and give them a dramatic look. With the help of eyeliner you can make your eyes bigger or smaller for this you must know different styles of Eyeliner, that are given below:

Basic Eyeliner Style:

This is the basic style of eyeliner and if you are applying the eyeliner for the first time yourself then make your hand steady by applying Basic Style first. Start applying the liner from the inner of your eye and by puling the liner to the corner of your eye. This is very easy way of applying a liner, you just need a little bit practice.

Cat Eye Liner Style:

This style is very popular and I personally Like this style because this style gives a dramatic look to your eyes. This style is best for bigger eyes. First start from the half of your eye and mark the area from where you want to start with and then pull the liner to the corner of your eye in a normal way. Now from the tip of your eye to the place where eyebrows end, draw a small dot and draw the line now drag the line till the place where you start your initial liner and coat it with the liner. This is the easiest way of applying a cat eyeliner style.

Winged Eyeliner Style:

This is similar to the Cat liner style but the difference is start from the inner lid of your eye in the basic liner style then again in the same mark from the tip of your eyebrows and mark a line and again bring the line like the cat liner style to the half of your eye. 

Arabic inspired Double Liner Style:

Start with the basic liner style and also apply liner under eye, and  make the curved line. Now from the under eye area  do in the same way as you make a curved line in the upper eye area. So you have a double liner style.This makes your eyes looking really Beautifull.

I Hope this information will guide you, you can easily apply these eyeliner styles by practicing twice or thrice.

 

Types of Eyeliner

Eyeliner is the makeup accessory that many women use as a part of their daily beauty routine.Depending upon how it is applied, eyeliner can make your eyes Bigger or Smaller. The eyeliner should be applied according to the eye shape.There are different types of Eyeliners that are used:


Liquid Eyeliner:

Liquid eyeliners are good in creating a dramatic look. You need to have a steady hand and patience in order to apply. Liquid liners have shiny finish as compared to pencil eyeliners. They have liquid formula and they are not recommended for beginners.

Pencil Eyeliners:

Pencil liners are most commonly used and as the name indicates its shape is like a pencil, they come in different colors. They are very easily used and are suggested for the beginners.

Kohl Eyeliner

It is the type of pencil eyeliner and is very popular in India.It can be homemade and is used because it is very easily used and allow smooth application.

Gel Eyeliner:

Gel liners are newest in the market and they come in a variety of shades.It consist of gel and hard angled brush, brush is dipped in gel and is applied very close to eyelashes, it can be applied both over as well as under the  lashes.It gives your eyes very dramatic and unique look.

Glitter Eyeliners:


These come in different colors, it is applied directly on eyes and give your eyes a glossy look.

I hope this information will guide you to choose Best eyeliner for you.

Make your Eyes sparkling

Eyes are the most beautiful feature of Face, Women's eyes are her best beauty and they express moods and emotions. To make your eyes sparkling and to get rid of tiredness, you should follow these steps:

• Take 8 hours sleep, lack of sleep is one of the factor that cause tiedness.

• Use cucumber slices and put it on your eyes, the cucumber juice plays essential role in sparkling of your eyes.

• Cold Tea is also essential, soak cotton ball in peppermint tea and place it on your eyes for 5-6 minutes and enjoy the sparkling results.

• Soak cotton ball in chilled milk for 5-6 minutes, it also makes your eyes relaxed and sparkle.

• Other things that you should consider is the Quality make-up, choose that make-up products that do not irritate your eyes also remember always remove the makeup before going to sleep.

By following these steps you will definitely get sparkling eyes because Tired eyes reduce the  natural Beauty of your Eyes.

Essential ways to protect your skin through SUNBLOCK

Sunlblock plays a vital role in protecting your skin against the UV light rays. Our skin consist of two layers outer thinner layer epidermis and inner thicker layer dermis, Epidermis contain the pigment Melanin: its greater synthesis is responsible for Darkening of skin, and one of the factor of skin darkening are UV rays that actually promote the action of tyrosinase which promote melanin synthesis.UVA rays are responsible for aging effect, however an exposure to UVA rays can cause skin cancer and UVB rays are responsible for sunburn and skin cancer.

One of the essential way to protect your skin from UV light rays is to use SUNBLOCK or also called as SUNSCREEN.You should use Sunblock cream whenever your are going Outside. Now the question arises : How to choose the Sunblock cream which best suits your Skin??

• First of all choose the cream according to your Skin Type mean if your have Oily Skin you should use Cream or Gel having no moisturizer in it, you should check the ingredients of the cream and if you have dry skin you must choose the sunscreen LOTION or cream having moisturizer in it.

• Then comes SPF: SUN PROTECTION FACTOR :

The sun rays are more dangerous from 12am to 3pm during this time you should use that sunscreen with SPF 60 or 80 and during morning when light rays are not so dangerous you can use Sunscreen of SPF 30, average SPF is  40.

• If you are looking for that cream to use while in water, choose Waterproof or Water resistant cream. Water proof cream provide protection in water for longer time than Water resistant cream.

Doctors suggests that everyone have to use Sunblock cream, even UV light rays also effects the Kids. 
I hope these instructions will guide you to choose best Sunscreen for you.

Essential ways to get Glowing Skin

• Take

1 egg white(albumin) and
1 table spoon Lemon Juice

Mix these two and use this as a mask on your skin, use of this mask once in a week make your skin Glowing and Healthy.

• Use of too many lipstick makes your lips dull and black so, To make your lips looking naturally pink, take

Juice of grapes 1 teaspoon and add in it a little bit grinded Cinnamon(dalchini) and use this lotion on your lips before going to bed. Use of this lotion makes your lips looking naturally pink.

• Night Lotion for dry skin

Take

1. Rose water 3 table spoon
2. Lemon juice 1/2 teaspoon
3. Glycerin 1 teaspoon and
4. Honey few drops

Mix these ingredients and preserve it in a bottle and use it at night, your skin become  Glowing and healthy.

Assignment of Transposones ( Molecular Biology)

                    TRANSPOSONES

Transposons also known as ‘Jumping Genes’ are the sequences of DNA that can move or transpose themselves to new positions within the genome of a single cell.

These elements were first identified more than 50 years ago by geneticist Barbara McClintock of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York

The mechanism of transposition can be either "copy and paste" or "cut and paste". Transposition can create

·      phenotypically significant mutations and

·      alter the cell's genome size.

Transposons make up a large fraction of the C-value of eukaryotic cells. Transposons are often considered "junk DNA". In Oxytricha, which has a unique genetic system, they play a critical role in its development. Transposons are very useful to researchers as a means to alter DNA inside a living organism.

Types of Transposones:

According to their mechanism of transposition, this can be described as either “copy or paste” (class I) or “cut and paste” (class II), transposones are assigned to one of two classes.

  · Class I transposons. These are Retrotransposons that :

• first transcribe the DNA into RNA and then
• Use reverse transcriptase to make a DNA copy of the RNA to insert in a new location.

• Class  II transposons. or DNA Transposones : These consist of DNA that moves directly from place to place.

DDNA Transposones:

Some of the simplest transposones, called DNA Transposones, consist of DNA sequences which code for an enzyme called transposase. Transposone is able to cleave a transposone from the genome, transport it to the new location, and reinsert it into the genome.This process is called conservative transposition. All prokaryote transposones as well as eukaryotic transposones utilize conservative transposition.

Example of DNA Transposone:

Ac(activator) transposable Elements:-

Ac transposones were one of the first transposable elements discovered by Barbara McClintock within the Maize corn genome. McClintock discovered that Ac transposones are self-sufficient in that they code for their own transposase enzyme, and, therefore can transpose independently.

Dc(dissociator)Transposable Elements:

McClintock discovered that Dc transposons are non-autonomous, as they are unable to transpose independently. Dc transposons do not code for their own transposase enzyme as they must depend on excess transposase produced by nearby Ac transposons. Therefore, Dc transposons remain immobile without the assistance of Ac transposons.

Retrotransposons:

The majority of Eukaryotic transposable elements are more complex transpsons called Retrotransposons. The host cell recognizes the retrotransposon as a normal DNA sequence within its genome, and synthesizes an RNA copy of it. However, the retrotransposon codes for an enzyme, called reverse transcriptase which is able to convert RNA copy of retrotransposon into an exact DNA duplicate of the original. Transposase then finds a suitable location to insert the new retrotransposon into the genome. This process is called Replicate Transposition.

There are 2 main types of retrotransposons:

     Non VIRAL RETROTRANSPOSONS:-

Non viral transposons comprise the largest of mammalian transposons.

EXAMPLE:

LINEs: There are roughly 850,000 LINEs, or long interspersed element, within each human genome. Some cases of hemophilia are caused by the insertion of a LINE transposon into the gene  of the X chromosome, which is partly responsible for the clotting of the blood.

SINEs: There are roughly 1500,000 SINEs , or short interspersed elements, within each human genome. Among these are the Alu elements.

Alu Elements:

Alu elements are the most common transposable elements within the human genome, making up more than 5%. It is believed that approximately 30-50 million years ago, Alu elements spread rapidly throughout the primate genome. Although they had lost the majority of their activity before the evolution of the human-like apes, they are still the popular source of research. Approximately 0.1% of human genetic diseases are caused by the transition of Alu elements within the genome.

     Viral Transposon: Viral transposon has properties very similar to that of retrovirus.

Examples:

Ty Transposable Element:  The best known example Ty transposon elements can be found within the yeast genome. During transposition, the Ty element is very prone to mutation. As a result, there are many variations of Ty transposons passed down through generations. One of these variations, the Tyl transposons is present in 35 copies throughout the yeast genome. The Ty transposable element causes harmful mutation by being inserted into, and disrupting, various gene within the yeast genome.

Drosophilacopia Transposable Elements: The drodophilacopia transposable element is found within the drosophila(fruit fly). There are seven known families of Drosophilacopia within the fruit fly genome, each of which has 10-100 copies within the genome. All together, Drosophilacopia transposons comprise 15% of the drosophila genome. The Drosophilacopia transposon is very similar to the Ty transposon in yeast. When inserted into genome, the Drosophilacopia transposon duplicates a number of DNA bases from the Drosophila genome at either of its ends. The Drosophilacopia transposon cause mutation by being inserted into functioning genes and disrupting their function and regulation. An example of such a mutation is the White Apricot Mutation which causes the variation the in colour of the fruit fly’s eye.

The Effect of Transposons:

Functional transposon pose an enormous risk to the genome because of their mobility and instability. When a transposon relocated within the genome it may land on a vital gene, disrupting its function. Or, the transposon may land near vital gene, causing them to be activated or shut down. No matter its defences, no organism is capable of restricting every transposon. In humans, genetic diseases are sometimes caused by the transfer of transposon from one location to another within the genomeduring sperm/egg production. As a result of transposon’s movement, a genetic mutation often arises, which may trigger the development of disease.

However, the danger of transposon today is not often seen as an enormous concern. With all of the precautions taken by our cell, transposition within the genome has become a rather infrequent event.

Assignment

Viral Infection:    INFLUENZA

Influenza, commonly referred to as the flu, It is a wide spread human disease, caused by RNA viruses of the family Orthomyxoviridae (the influenza viruses), that affects birds and mammals. Infection with these viruses leads to a self-limiting illness usually characterized by fever, muscle aches, fatigue, and upper respiratory infection and inflammation. Although it is often confused with other influenza-like illnesses, especially the common cold, influenza is a more severe disease than the common cold and is caused by a different type of virus. Influenza may produce nausea and vomiting, particularly in children, but these symptoms are more common in the unrelated gastroenteritis, which is sometimes called inaccurately "stomach flu." Flu can occasionally cause either direct viral pneumonia or secondary bacterial pneumonia.

Transmition of Influenza :

Typically, influenza is transmitted through the air by coughs or sneezes, creating aerosols containing the virus. Influenza can also be transmitted by direct contact with bird droppings or nasal secretions, or through contact with contaminated surfaces.

Influenza viruses can be inactivated by sunlight, disinfectants and detergents. As the

virus can be inactivated by soap, frequent hand washing reduces the risk of infection.

Classification

Types of virus:  In virus classification influenza viruses are RNA viruses that make up three of the five genera of the family Orthomyxoviridae:

·        Influenzavirus A

·        Influenzavirus B

·        Influenzavirus C

Influenzavirus A:

Type A causes epidemic influenza, in which large numbers of people become infected during a short period of time. Flu epidemics caused by Type A viruses infect both humans and animals and usually originate in the Far East, where a large population of ducks and swine incubate the virus and pass it to humans. The Far East also has a very large human population that provides a fertile ground for viral replication.  The illness it caused was severe, and sometimes fatal. Although it was strongly believed that humans could not get the disease from eating properly cooked chicken.

Influenzavirus B:

 Influenza B almost exclusively infects humans and is less common than influenza A. The only other animals known to be susceptible to influenza B infection are the seal and the ferret.

Influenzavirus C:

This genus has one species, influenza C virus, which infects humans, dogs and pigs, sometimes causing both severe illnesses. However, influenza C is less common than the other types and usually only causes mild disease in children.

Structure and  properties: Influenza viruses A, B and C are very similar in overall structure. The virus particle is 80–120 nanometres in diameter and usually roughly spherical, although filamentous forms can occur. These filamentous forms are more common in influenza C, which can form cordlike structures up to 500 micrometres long on the surfaces of infected cells. However, despite these varied shapes, the viral particles of all influenza viruses are similar in composition.

STRUCTURE: These are made of a viral envelope containing two main types of glycoproteins, wrapped around a central core. The central core contains the viral RNA genome and other viral proteins that package and protect this RNA. RNA tends to be single stranded but in special cases it is double. Unusually for a virus, its genome is not a single piece of nucleic acid; instead, it contains seven or eight pieces of segmented negative-sense RNA, each piece of RNA containing either one or two genes. For example, the influenza A genome contains 11 genes on eight pieces of RNA, encoding for 11 proteins: hemagglutinin (HA), neuraminidase (NA), nucleoprotein (NP), M1, M2, NS1, NS2 (NEP: nuclear export protein), PA, PB1 (polymerase basic 1), PB1-F2 and PB2.

Entry into the Cell:

The influenza virus enters the cell by receptor mediated endocytosis through the clathrin-coated pits. After internalization, the virus containing the coated vesicle, uncoats and fuses with the endosome having acidic pH. The HA: hemagglutinin mediates fusion of the endosome membrane and viral membrane and all the viral RNA enters the cytosol where it replicates and expresses viral proteins.

Replication:

Viruses can replicate only in living cells. Influenza infection and replication is a multi-step process.

Process by which a virus enters a host cell and infects it by reproducing its own genetic material and assembling into virus particles.

The influenza virus is a class of viruses containing RNA as its hereditary material.
It replicates by entering a host cell and using this cell's resources to produce hundreds of copies of the viral RNA.

The virus attaches to the outside of the host cell and its RNA enters into the cell. The viral genes are transcribed and translated by the cell's enzymes and ribosomes. In this way, the virus takes over the cell's productivity. Now, instead of producing only new cellular material, the cell produces hundreds of new virus particles. The new virus particles are eventually released from the cell and drift off, and some may land on a host cell of their own to pirate.

Signs and symptoms:

Symptoms of influenza can start quite suddenly one to two days after infection. Usually the first symptoms are chills or a chilly sensation, but fever is also common early in the infection, with body temperatures ranging from 38-39 °C (approximately 100-103 °F). Many people are so ill that they are confined to bed for several days, with aches and pains throughout their bodies, which are worse in their backs and legs.^[Symptoms of influenza may include:

• Fever and extreme coldness (chills shivering, shaking (rigor)
• Cough
• Nasal congestion
• Body aches, especially joints and throat
• Fatigue
• Headache
• Irritated, watering eyes
• Reddened eyes, skin (especially face), mouth, throat and nose
• In children, gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea and abdomin pain (may be severe in children with influenza B).

Prevention

Vaccination against influenza with an influenza vaccine is often recommended for high-risk groups, such as children and the elderly, or in people who have asthma, diabetes and heart disease.

Infection control:

Reasonably effective ways to reduce the transmission of influenza include good personal health and hygiene habits such as: not touching your eyes, nose or mouth; frequent hand washing (with soap and water, or with alcohol-based hand rubs); covering coughs and sneezes; avoiding close contact with sick people; and staying home yourself if you are sick. Avoiding spitting is also recommended. Although face masks might help prevent transmission when caring for the sick, there is mixed evidence on beneficial effects in the community. Smoking raises the risk of contracting influenza, as well as producing more severe disease symptoms.

My Assignment. Any body need this mateial , u r most welcome

                                                       Immunity to viruses

Introduction:

Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites.  That means that viruses are incapable of reproducing in a free-living state, because they typically lack the means to produce metabolic energy (that it,, to break down sugars and other foodstuffs and to produce ATP as a result) and the means to synthesize protein.  In order to reproduce therefore, viruses must be able to attach themselves to the surface of cells (which are provided by some other living organism), to insert their genome into the host cell, and then to commandeer the ATP and protein-synthesizing machinery of the host cell to reproduce themselves.

Some viruses replicate rapidly, leading to the production of large numbers of virus particles inside the cell that are released in a burst by the lysis and death of the host cell.  These viruses typically reattach to other host cells (in humans perhaps within 30 minutes) and start this cycle of binding, insertion, commandeering, and bursting all over again.  Some viruses actually insert their genome permanently into the host genome, thereby acting like the host cell’s own genetic material.  In this “lysogenic” state, the virus directs production of copies of its own nucleic acid and synthesis of necessary viral proteins, at a relatively low rate, and these viral particles typically bud off from the host cell and travel to other cells, without causing death of the host cells.  The bursting kind of life history is typical of acutely infectious viruses, like the rhinoviruses that cause the common cold, while the lysogenic/budding mechanism is more typical of viruses that cause chronic disease, such as herpes and hepatitis viruses.  It’s an oversimplification to say all viruses adopt one or the other of these “lifestyles”, because there are intermediate life styles, but these are the most common viral strategies.

The defense against viral infections includes both innate immune mechanisms (especially interferons alpha and beta, which induce a number of cellular mechanisms that inhibit viral protein synthesis), as well as both humoral and cellular adaptive responses.

Humoral Response to Virus:

 Since viruses typically spend a relatively small fraction of their lives outside a host cell, they are not particularly susceptible to control by the humoral immune system.  Antibodies do not cross the membrane of cells, and therefore can only bind to viruses in the period when they have first entered the organism or are moving from one host cell to another.  They are vulnerable at that time and antibodies can inactivate them; vaccines often induce a humoral response to viruses, and if the antibody levels are high enough, this can effectively block the virus from reattaching to host cells, and allow it to be opsonized and digested by phagocytic cells like neutrophils and macrophages.

Innate immune response to Viruses:

The early or innate immune defence against virus includes interferons, natural killer cells and macrophages. The viral infection of a cell directly stimulates the production of type 1 IFN (that includes IFN- alpha and a single IFN-beta, as well as less-known IFN-omega) by infected cells.

The type 1 IFN functions to inhibit viral replication in both infected and uninfected cells by inducing an antiviral state. IFN-alpha/ beta bind to receptor present on host cells that trigger IFN signal transduction pathways. Stimulated signal transduction pathways lead to transcriptional activation of 30 or more cellular genes whose products are responsible for inducing the antiviral state.

However, the main means that the immune system uses to control viral infections is the cytotoxic T cell mediated response. 

Cytotoxic T cell mediated response:

Once a virus has gained entry into the host cell, antibodies become ineffective and cell mediated immune mechanism come into play to eradicate the infection.

In general, T-cyt cells and T-hi cells are the main components of cell mediated antiviral defence. Antigen- specific recognition mediated by the TCR of T-cyt cells and T-hi cells results in the activation of T-cell effector functions. T-cyt cells identify and destroy virus infected cells. T-cyt cells recognize viral peptides displayed on the surface of infected cells together with class I MHC molecules. These T-cyt cells release granules of the protein-perforin on the target cell membrane. These perforin molecules form transmembrane pores in the target cell membrane, lysing and killing the target cells. Virtually all the cells of the body express class I MHC molecules, making it easier for T-cyt cells to identify and eliminate virus- infected cells. T cells undergo massive proliferation during viral infection.

Destruction of the host cell in which the virus is reproducing is an effective way to interrupt the virus’s reproductive cycle, and thus to control the spread of the infection.

We still get sick from viruses, however, so clearly our immune response is not perfect in preventing disease.  What’s more some viruses, like herpes virus, can establish lifelong infections in individuals, so clearly viruses have mechanisms to escape detection and destruction by the immune system. 

Strategies of Virus to get into Host cell:

• One is essentially an evolutionary or evasive strategy.  That is, the immune system recognizes and attacks particular viral protein structures or “epitopes”.  In any given population of viruses some individual virus particles will have undergone some random mutations in their proteins, some of which will change the structure of these epitopes.  Thus while the immune system is attacking the viruses which express this dominant epitope, other viruses may escape notice and therefore continue to reproduce.  RNA viruses like rhinoviruses or influenza virus often survive by just such a strategy.
• A second group of strategies used by some viruses is actively inhibiting or altering the host’s immune response with viral proteins, and these are some of the most effective viruses. For example some viruses that can be lysed by complement have devised mechanisms to inhibit complement. Vaccinia virus produces a protein that binds and inhibits complement factor C4b, an essential element of the classical pathway.

·        One of the most successful groups of human pathogens are the herpes simplex viruses, which cause cold sores, genital herpes (Herpes simplex type II), chicken pox and shingles (Herpes zoster).  These viruses establish lifelong infections in their hosts using a variety of ingenious strategies.  First, the viruses produce a protein that binds to and inhibits the C3b component of complement, which is essential for the activity of all three complement pathways.  Thus, the virus has a self-protective mechanism for those times when it is outside host cells.